Adapted from materials provided by Springer.

Journal Reference:

1. Lustgarten J. Cancer, aging and immunotherapy: lessons learned from animal models. Cancer Immunology Immunotherapy, 2009; 58 (12): 1979 DOI: 10.1007/s00262-009-0677-8

because like the rest of our organs, our immune system ages and gradually becomes less efficient as we get older.

See Also:

Health & Medicine

* Immune System

* Lymphoma

* Lupus

* Diseases and Conditions

* Elder Care

* Human Biology

Reference

* Transplant rejection

* Natural killer cell

* Immune system

* Inflammation of the kidney

Dr. Joseph Lustgarten, from the Mayo Clinic College of Medicine in the US, reviews the effects of aging on the immune system and strategies used to activate a stronger antitumor immune response in the elderly, including genetic modifications in animal models. His findings1 have just been published in the latest issue of Springer’s journal Cancer Immunology, Immunotherapy.

Aging of the immune system coincides with higher rates of cancer in the elderly. There is a wealth of research on the effects of harnessing the power of the body’s own immune defences to recognize and destroy tumors (immunotherapy), yet very little of this work takes into account the effects of aging on the immune system. Older individuals do not respond to vaccine therapy as well as younger adults.

Dr. Lustgarten’s paper summarizes some of the defects found in the old immune system which affect antitumor responses; strategies used to improve the efficiency of older people’s immune response; and the use of animal models to identify how it might be possible to manipulate the old immune system, for more effective immunotherapeutic interventions in older patients.

Vaccination strategies that effectively stimulate antitumor immune responses in both younger and older patients are dependent on combining different therapies. The therapies must keep the balance between activating a safe and effective antitumor immune response and inducing an autoimmune reaction.

Dr Lustgarten concludes: “The immune system of the elderly is very different from the young and it is difficult to extrapolate results obtained in the young, for use in the old. Our job in the next few years is to figure out how to robust the old immune system by understanding, at a molecular level, its intrinsic defects to properly stimulate antitumor responses. Only then can we successfully customize tumor vaccines to be effective for the treatment of tumors in the old.”

Story Source:

Adapted from materials provided by Springer.

Journal Reference:

1. Lustgarten J. Cancer, aging and immunotherapy: lessons learned from animal models. Cancer Immunology Immunotherapy, 2009; 58 (12): 1979 DOI: 10.1007/s00262-009-0677-8

ShareThis

ENERhance is a natural herbal supplement.

Also contains vitamins & minerals.

Increases energy without caffeine.

************************

Health and Nutritional Supplements, You Need Both

By: Tan Kim Kia

Health is the greatest treasure a man can have.

There are several factors that influence our health. Among them we find the pollution, stress, inadequate nutrition. All these factors are hurtful to our body.

Did you know that in a whole year we consume over four kilos and a half to five kilos of poisonous substances present in our food?

If not eliminated, these substances create a chaotic movement of our body cells and generate a favorable ground for the action of free radicals. These free radicals generate a great diversity of cancer forms.

Health depends on an adequate diet too. “Scientific evidence in support of the health benefits of nutritional supplements has grown dramatically in recent years,” said Jeffrey Blumberg, Ph.D., a professor in the School of Nutrition Science and Policy at Tufts University in Boston. “We must now work to translate this knowledge to health care providers, policy makers and consumers so the simple actions people can take to promote their health and prevent disease can be more fully realized. The impact of a rational use of dietary supplements can also help reduce health care costs which escalate every year as our population grows older.

Symptoms

Many problems such as : lack of energy, insomnia, headaches, depression, mood swings, anxiety, easy bruising, bleeding gums, slow wound healing etc. can be traced directly to deficiencies in specific vitamins and minerals.

Circumstances

Because of the methods applied nowadays in agriculture, which destroy the natural mineral substances, we cannot be sure that the agricultural products ensure us the necessary vitamins and minerals. Although all people should try to have healthy and balanced diet, few in reality do.

Nutritional Supplements to bridge your nutrition gaps

More and more people try the nutritional supplements as a way to combat the nutritional deficiencies and to ensure the necessary of vital nutrients for maintaining the quality of their life. Before you start taking nutritional supplements you must know a few things about them.

Nutritional supplements represent a support to our body. The nutritional supplements clean the human body and restore the deficiencies present inside. While taken constantly, nutritional supplements promote good health and help prevent disease. Nutritional supplements represent a good thing that we need . Here are a few things that you might consider before taking nutritional supplements:

1. Everybody can consume nutritional supplement and mostly if is diagnosed with a nutritional deficiency.

2. You must find out if you have a nutritional deficiency.

3. Ask your physician if it is safe for you to take nutritional supplements.

4. Does this supplement interacts with any drug or food you are consuming?

5. If you want to know more you can read about it or you can find more information at nutritional supplements guide from the Internet.

Quality

Regarding their quality, the nutritional supplements must be natural, easy to assimilate, must have a high nutritional value, must come from ecologically non-polluted areas and must be certified.

On the market are thousands of dietary supplements. Great companies fight for a place on the market. Each of them offers a diversity of products. These products seem to bring the same benefits to our body but they are in fact very different one from another. The difference is obvious when you read the label and you see the ingredients. The ingredients are the ones which make the products so valuable.

Research

The nutritional supplements are usually obtained after a period of research.

The research services work hard in order to offer us good products having great and rapid effects. It would be good for you when you choose to take nutritional supplements to inform upon the company which produces the products. If it is a world leadership or if it is among the greatest in the world than you may decide to consume the products it proposes to you. They are first tested over and over again and are only then offered to the public.

So we must be very careful when choosing nutritional supplements and do not forget to consult your physician!

About the Author:

Allan Tan Kim Kia is an nutrition scholar and author of Best Vitamin Supplements Guide who provides tips and advice how to choose and where to buy best vitamin supplements online. http://www.best-vitamin-supplements-guide.com

Printed From: http://www.articlesbase.com/nutrition-articles/health-and-nutritional-supplements-you-need-both-83822.html

ShareThis

ENERhance
Boost and Restore Energy: natural herbs, vitamins & minerals

Secondary Benefits

• Strengthen and protect the immune system
• Helps individuals speed recovery from illnesses
• Contains Astragalus, Poria seed, Ginseng, Reishi Mushroom

• ********************************************************************

One Virus Particle Is Enough To Cause Infectious Disease

ScienceDaily (Mar. 14, 2009) — Can exposure to a single virus particle lead to infection or disease? Until now, solid proof has been lacking. Experimental research with insect larvae at Wageningen University and Simon Fraser University in Canada has shown that one virus particle is theoretically enough to cause infection and subsequent disease.

A virus population is usually composed of a collection of variants of virus particles. In order to  investigate whether virus particles (virions) can cause an infection independently from each other, and therefore individually, the researchers set up an experiment with two ‘marked’ virus variants. They exposed a population of hosts (caterpillars) to both variants.

The experiment showed that exposure to a low dosage of virus particles resulted in a small number host infections (20%). The majority of these hosts (86%) turned out to be infected by a single virus genotype. In contrast, exposure to a high dosage of virus particles resulted in virtually all the hosts (99%) becoming infected, where most of the hosts were infected by both types of virus. Only 14% were infected by only one of the two variants.

Based on the assumption that every virus particle operates independently from all other virus particles, the researchers set up a probability model. This model predicts how many virus particles have caused an infection and how many different virus genotypes are present in infected hosts, such as plants, insects or people. The results of the infection experiment with the susceptible insects are in agreement with the model predictions. From this it can be derived that the virus particles have an independent effect, and that a single virus particle can indeed cause infection and/or disease.

If there are few virus particles that lead to an infection, the number of virus particles determines the degree of diversity that can be present within the host. This is an important finding because the interactions between virus variants, such as competition and exchanging genetic information, determine the progression of disease and the evolution of the virus.

Until now, it was unclear whether a virus must be seen as an individual that can infect a host independently, or whether a cloud of viruses ‘cooperates’ to cause an infection. It is not yet known if the viruses that affect people can also act individually, but this research shows that it is possible.

The researchers recently published this finding in the Proceedings of the Royal Society B.

Journal reference:

1. Mark P Zwart, Lia Hemerik, Jenny S Cory, J. Arjan G.M de Visser, Felix J.J.A Bianchi, Monique M Van Oers, Just M Vlak, Rolf F Hoekstra, and Wopke Van der Werf. An experimental test of the independent action hypothesis in virus%u2013insect pathosystems. Proc. R. Soc. B, 2009; DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2009.0064..Adapted from materials provided by Wageningen University and Research Centre.

Strengthen Immune System-Build white blood cells

ShareThis

LOGO.jpg

******************************************************************

by: Dani Veracity, citizen journalist

Hailed in ancient Eastern medicine as the “mushroom of immortality” and the “medicine of kings,” you’d expect reishi to offer you some pretty astounding health benefits, right? Your assumptions are correct. This prized fungus may be able to boost your immune system, fight cancer, ward off heart disease, calm your nerves and relieve both allergies and inflammation.

“Reishi indeed sounds like a cure-all,” writes Rebecca Wood in her book “New Whole Foods Encyclopedia.” She goes on to explain reishi’s wide range of uses: “An immunostimulant, it is helpful for people with AIDS, leaky-gut syndrome, Epstein-Barr, chronic bronchitis and other infectious diseases. It is used as an aid to sleep, as a diuretic, as a laxative and to lower cholesterol.” It almost seems too good to be true.

How can one fungus help the human body in so many ways? Traditional Eastern medical science explains reishi’s wide range of medicinal applications better, perhaps, than mainstream medicine ever could. According to Eastern thought, the body needs to defend itself against threats to its “equilibrium.” These threats can be physical, such as viruses and bacteria that cause infection; emotional, such as stressors that cause anxiety; or energetic, in that they reduce alertness. Whatever the threat, reishi helps the body maintain its defense against these threats to its equilibrium, helping the body to maintain balance. In this sense, diseases like heart disease and cancer mean that the body is out of balance, which is why an equilibrium-enhancing remedy such as reishi can help so many diverse ailments.

Skeptics can doubt the previous explanation as Taoist “mumbo jumbo,” but laboratory research proves many of reishi’s medicinal applications. As Dr. Andrew Weil writes, reishi “has been the subject of a surprising amount of scientific research in Asia and the West.” Research shows that the polysaccharide beta-1,3-D-glucan in reishi boosts the immune system by raising the amount of macrophages T-cells, which has major implications for people suffering from AIDS and other immune system disorders.

This immune-boosting action also works wonders in the prevention and treatment of cancer, as the T-cells are then able to fight cancer cells more effectively. However, reishi may help the body defeat cancer in not just one, but four ways. In addition to boosting the immune system, the glucan in reishi helps immune cells bind to tumor cells. Many experts believe that it also actually reduces the number of cancerous cells, making it easier for T-cells and macrophages to rid the body of them. Another substance in reishi, called canthaxanthin, slows down the growth of tumors, according to “Prescription for Dietary Wellness” author Phyllis A. Balch and other experts. As a result of these amazing anti-cancer abilities, laboratory research and traditional medicinal usage of reishi to fight cancer is so positive that the Japanese government officially recognizes it as a cancer treatment.

Besides cancer, reishi can help and treat another of America’s top killers: cardiovascular disease. The protection reishi offers against heart disease and stroke is truly remarkable because it helps prevent so many different risk factors, due to its high content of heart-saving substances like sterols, ganoderic acids, coumarin, mannitol and polysaccharides. Experts believe that the ganoderic acids in particular lower triglyceride levels, remove excess cholesterol from the blood, lower blood pressure, reduce platelet stickiness and even help correct arrhythmia. In fact, for 54 people with hypertension unresponsive to medication, taking reishi extract three times a day for four weeks was enough to significantly lower blood pressure, according to a study reported by Burton Goldberg in “Heart Disease.” Just imagine how the incidence of cardiovascular disease could be reduced if using reishi really caught on in the Western hemisphere.

While you protect your body against infectious disease, cancer and heart disease, your use of reishi can also help relieve your everyday discomforts. Do you have allergies? Japanese researchers discovered that the lanostan in reishi acts as a natural antihistamine. Do you suffer from muscle aches or arthritis? Dr. William B. Stavinhoa of the University of Texas Health Science Center found that reishi is as powerful as five milligrams of hydrocortisone, but with minimal side effects. What about anxiety or insomnia? According to “Mind Boosters” by Dr. Ray Sahelia, the reishi mushroom can calm the mind, as well as improve memory, concentration and focus. With all these benefits, reishi truly is the “medicine of kings.”

Article continued: Mr Green Archive

ShareThis

ShareThis

April 2009

Key facts

• Influenza is an acute viral infection that spreads easily from person to person.
• Influenza circulates worldwide and can affect anybody in any age group.
• Influenza causes annual epidemics that peak during winter in temperate regions.
• Influenza is a serious public health problem that causes severe illnesses and deaths for higher risk populations.
• An epidemic can take an economic toll through lost workforce productivity, and strain health services.
• Vaccination is the most effective way to prevent infection.

Overview

Seasonal influenza is an acute viral infection caused by an influenza virus.

There are three types of seasonal influenza – A, B and C. Type A influenza viruses are further typed into subtypes according to different kinds and combinations of virus surface proteins. Among many subtypes of influenza A viruses, currently influenza A(H1N1) and A(H3N2) subtypes are circulating among humans. Influenza viruses circulate in every part of the world. Type C influenza cases occur much less frequently than A and B. That is why only influenza A and B viruses are included in seasonal influenza vaccines.

Signs and symptoms

Seasonal influenza is characterized by a sudden onset of high fever, cough (usually dry), headache, muscle and joint pain, severe malaise (feeling unwell), sore throat and runny nose. Most people recover from fever and other symptoms within a week without requiring medical attention. But influenza can cause severe illness or death in people at high risk (see below). The time from infection to illness, known as the incubation period, is about two days.

Who is at risk?

Yearly influenza epidemics can seriously affect all age groups, but the highest risk of complications occur among children younger than age two, adults age 65 or older, and people of any age with certain medical conditions, such as chronic heart, lung, kidney, liver, blood or metabolic diseases (such as diabetes), or weakened immune systems.

Transmission

Seasonal influenza spreads easily and can sweep through schools, nursing homes or businesses and towns. When an infected person coughs, infected droplets get into the air and another person can breath them in and be exposed. The virus can also be spread by hands infected with the virus. To prevent transmission, people should cover their mouth and nose with a tissue when coughing, and wash their hands regularly.

Treatment

Antiviral drugs for influenza are available in some countries and effectively prevent and treat the illness. There are two classes of such medicines, 1) adamantanes (amantadine and remantadine), and 2) inhibitors of influenza neuraminidase (oseltamivir and zanamivir). Some influenza viruses develop resistance to the antiviral medicines, limiting the effectiveness of treatment. WHO monitors antiviral susceptibility in the circulating influenza viruses.

Seasonal epidemics

Influenza epidemics occur yearly during autumn and winter in temperate regions. Illnesses result in hospitalizations and deaths mainly among high-risk groups (the very young, elderly or chronically ill). Worldwide, these annual epidemics result in about three to five million cases of severe illness, and about 250 000 to 500 000 deaths. Most deaths associated with influenza in industrialized countries occur among people age 65 or older. In some tropical countries, influenza viruses circulate throughout the year with one or two peaks during rainy seasons.

Disease effects

Influenza can cause serious public health and economic problems. In developed countries, epidemics can result in high levels of worker absenteeism and productivity losses. In communities, clinics and hospitals can be overwhelmed when large numbers of sick people appear for treatment during peak illness periods. While most people recover from a bout of influenza, there are large numbers of people who need hospital treatment and many who die from the disease every year. Little is known about the effects of influenza epidemics in developing countries.

Prevention

The most effective way to prevent the disease or severe outcomes from the illness is vaccination. Safe and effective vaccines have been available and used for more than 60 years. Among healthy adults, influenza vaccine can prevent 70% to 90% of influenza-specific illness. Among the elderly, the vaccine reduces severe illnesses and complications by up to 60%, and deaths by 80%.

Vaccination is especially important for people at higher risk of serious influenza complications, and for people who live with or care for high risk individuals.

WHO recommends annual vaccination for (in order of priority):

• nursing-home residents (the elderly or disabled)
• elderly individuals
• people with chronic medical conditions
• other groups such as pregnant women, health care workers, those with essential functions in society, as well as children from ages six months to two years.

Influenza vaccination is most effective when circulating viruses are well-matched with vaccine viruses. Influenza viruses are constantly changing, and the WHO Global Influenza Surveillance Network (GISN), a partnership of National Influenza Centres around the world, monitors the influenza viruses circulating in humans. WHO annually recommends a vaccine composition that targets the three most representative strains in circulation.

WHO response

WHO, with its partners, monitors influenza globally, annually recommends a seasonal influenza vaccine composition, and supports Member States efforts to develop prevention and control strategies. WHO works to strengthen national and regional influenza diagnostic capacities, disease surveillance, outbreak responses, and increase vaccine coverage among high-risk groups.

ShareThis

Soothe Insomnia

• Reduce Stress
  
• Regulates nervous system
• Relieves stress, anxiety, mild depression, and insomnia
• Promotes optimal sleep patterns
• __________________________________________________________

By: Chuck Arnone

Many studies have shown a link between stress and illness. Stress seems to have become a constant factor in today’s fast-paced society which can weaken the immune system and accelerate the aging process.
We talk about the three most significant stressors, namely, unwanted aloneness, loss of control, and loss of hope.If you can address those three stressors, you can enhance the power of the immune system,which may have an effect on how it’s able to fight those cancer cells and lessen the effects of cold and flu symptoms.

What we are looking at is if you can enhance the power of the immune system by doing things that make you happy, you will be healthier. Immune cells spend much of their lives circulating in those blood vessels.Immune systems of optimistic people have been found to fare much better under stressful conditions than those with a negative attitude.Chemotherapy has an affect on many cells in your body.

There is no question that good nutrition is necessary for a healthy immune system and that means a healthy variety of proteins, carbohydrates, fat, minerals, vitamins, fluids, etc. Your nutrition choices as well as your emotions can have a big impact on your body’s ability to keep up your energy levels and immune system.

In one small study, researchers found that moderate exercise (three or more times a week) increased the immune cell counts of women undergoing breast cancer treatment back to normal levels, and also improved the women’s mood and ability to handle their feelings comfortably. A healthy immune system regulates our body’s healing process and protects it against infections and diseases. Premature aging and fatigue are just part of the problem with stress and your immune system. Sleep time is when your body and immune system do most of its repairs and rejuvenation. Tea is a wonder drink as it has the ability to strenghten your immune system and fight off germs.

The field of study that examines the link between stress and the immune system is known as psychoneuroimmunology. Several studies in this area indicate that physical and emotional stress can have either good or bad effects on the immune system’s response. Autoimmune diseases are a result from this attack; the more commonly occurring examples include systemic lupus erythematosus (lupus), Grave’s disease of the thyroid, and rheumatoid arthritis. Autoimmune diseases are very sensitive to any kind of stress and symptoms worsen during that time. It is also interesting to note that many autoimmune disorders, such as lupus and Grave’s disease, occur more commonly in women than in men. A positive attitude, connecting to other human beings, and minimizing stress all have a lot to do with immune system health, as well.

Part of the solution to living longer and being healthy is to protect your immune system. A healthy system regulates our body’s healing process and protects it against infections and diseases. Stress influences our health so profoundly because of the way it affects our nervous and immune systems. Because of the connection between stress and health, stress management should be a cornerstone of your healthy lifestyle. Think about your state of health for a moment. And also the health of those you know. How we learn to deal with stress makes a huge difference in how healthy we are. Studies have shown that how a person deals with stress affects your health.

About the Author:

Chuck Arnone’s research into the immune system and it’s affect on your health can be very informative.

Printed From: http://www.articlesbase.com/health-articles/stress-will-harm-your-immune-system-296958.html

ShareThis

ENERhance

Boost and Restore Energy: natural herbs, vitamins & minerals

Secondary Benefits

• Strengthen the immune system
• Helps individuals speed recovery from illnesses
• Contains Astragalus, Poria seed, Ginseng, Reishi Mushroom

**********************************************

Influenza And Bacterial Pneumonia Make For Harmful Super-infection

ScienceDaily

Influenza, or flu, is an unpleasant affair with fever, cough, as well as head and body ache.
When this illness is further complicated by a
bacterialpneumonia, a harmful super-infection develops. Until now, researchers thought
that the flu facilitates an infection with pneumonia bacteria because it leads
to a decrease of immune cells in the blood and thus impairs the body's
defenses.
A joint venture from researchers from the Helmholtz-Centre for Infection
Research (HZI) in Braunschweig, the Otto-von-Guericke-University in Magdeburg,
and the Karolinska institute in Sweden have taken an in-depth look at the
connection between flu infection and pneumonia. Their results have disproven a
common theory about flu-like pneumonia.

Some viral infections trigger a decrease of immune cells in the blood – a
so-called "lymphopenia". The reasons behind it and whether this is
the case with influenza are unknown. To investigate the latter, HZI researchers
infected mice with flu viruses and measured the amount of immune cells in the
animal's blood every day. Some days later, flu-infected mice received a dosage
of pneumonia bacteria usually harmless for healthy mice. While the flu-infected
mice did develop a superinfection & subsequently died, surprisingly, they
were not suffering from lymphopenia. The healthy, non-flu-infected mice
defeated the bacteria successfully and recovered.

To discover whether a lack of immune cells encourages an infection with
pneumonia bacteria in general, an artificial drug-induced lymphopenia was
established in the mice. Without infecting these lymphopenic mice with flu
viruses, they received pneumonia bacteria. Despite a severe lack of immune
cells, the mice recovered completely.

With these results, the researchers could show that influenza facilitates
and intensifies an infection from pneumonia bacteria, while disproving the
common idea that this is caused by a lack of immune cells. "This result
was an enormous surprise for us because it directly contradicts widespread
assumptions", says Sabine Stegemann, researcher in the groups "Immune
regulation" at the HZI and "Molecular Immunology" at the
Otto-von-Guericke-University in Magdeburg.

"Now we want to understand the reasons for the increased
susceptibility", says Matthias Gunzer, head of the group in Magdeburg.
"It could be interplay of weakened mucous membranes and scavenger cells
that induce ideal conditions for pneumonia bacteria to create a deadly lung infection.
Another reason may be a reaction of the host immune system: It disables
hyperactive flu-fighting immune cells to inhibit destruction of healthy lung
tissue. "The immune system keeps itself under control and that makes it
easy for pneumonia bacteria to infect the lung", says Gunzer.
Increased Susceptibility for Superinfection with Streptococcus pneumoniae
during Influenza Virus Infection Is Not Caused by TLR7-Mediated Lymphopenia 2009; 

Adapted from materials provided by Helmholtz Association of German Research Centres,
via EurekAlert!, a service of AAAS.

ShareThis

By sacha tarkovsky

ShareThis

ENERhance: Boost and Restore Energy: natural herbs, vitamins & minerals

• Strengthen the immune system
• Helps individuals speed recovery from illnesses
• Contains Astragalus, Poria seed, Ginseng, Reishi Mushroom

**************************************************************

ScienceDaily (Mar. 30, 2009) — For some people it is a certainty: as soon as the annual flu season gets underway, they are sure to go down with it. It is little comfort to know that there are other people who are apparently resistant to flu or overcome the illness after just a couple of days. It is this phenomenon that is now being investigated by researchers at the Helmholtz Center for Infection Research, using various strains of mice.

“Where there are many scientific works dealing solely with the flu virus, we have investigated how the host reacts to an infection,” says Klaus Schughart, head of the Experimental Mouse Genetics research group. In infection experiments the researchers have now discovered that an excessive immune response is responsible for the fatal outcome of the disease in mice. This overreaction has genetic roots.

For their investigations the researchers injected seven different inbred mouse strains with the same quantity of type Influenza A flu viruses. All of the animals within one mouse strain are genetically identical, like identical twins. However, one strain differs from another just like different individuals in the human population. To their surprise, the researchers were able to identify strong differences in the progression of the influenza between the seven strains. In five of the strains the illness was mild: the animals lost weight, recovering completely after seven to eight days. However, in two of the mouse strains the animals lost weight rapidly and died after just a few days.

The researchers looked for reasons for these differences: they investigated how the immune system of the animals responds to the virus. “The mice die from their own immune defences, which are actually supposed to protect them against the virus. The immune system produces too many messengers, which have a strong activating effect on the immune cells. These cells then kill tissue cells in the lungs that are infected with the virus,” says Schughart. At the same time, these overactive cells also destroy healthy lung tissue. In mice that died the researchers also found one hundred times more viruses than in animals that survived. “It appears that the animals have specific receptors on their cells that make them more receptive to a severe viral infection.” Flu infections in humans could take a similar course, here too, genetic factors could favour a severe progression of the illness. “It is only now that we are beginning to understand the role played by the genetic factors of the host and what increased receptiveness means in the case of influenza,” says Schughart.

Every year between 10,000 and 30,000 people in Germany die from influenza, the majority via pathogens of the Influenza A type. There are various sub-types of the main type A, in which the composition of the virus envelope differs. H1N1 and H3N2 are the most widely-distributed flu strains amongst humans, H5N1 the familiar avian flu virus. The H stands for the protein haemagglutinin, with which the virus latches onto the cells of the airways, infecting them. In order for the newly-created flu viruses to leave the host cells, in turn, they require neuraminidase (N). To evade an immune response the virus changes the H and N characteristics constantly. Sometimes light, sometimes heavy: the result is a completely new virus type with a new number, with the consequences generally a severe global flu pandemic.

Journal reference:

1. Srivastava et al. Host Genetic Background Strongly Influences the Response to Influenza A Virus Infections. PLoS ONE, 2009; 4 (3): e4857 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0004857

Adapted from materials provided by Helmholtz Association of German Research Centres, via EurekAlert!, a service of AAAS.

ShareThis